The Ethics of Genome Editing in Livestock. 
Global Terrorism & Collective Moral Responsibility. Ethics of Behavioural Influence and Prediction. 
Collective Responsibility for Infectious Disease. Best interests and sufficient benefit: The ethics of hard decisions in healthcare. 2015 Wellcome & Loebel Lecture in Neuroethics. Oxford Loebel Lectures and Research Programme. The primary obstacle is that, whether human cells are being transplanted into mouse, pig, or monkey embryos, “the integration efficiencies we see in all cross-species experiments are very, very low. “For this to become a reality, there are a number of obstacles,” says Jacob Hanna, a stem cell biologist at the Weizmann Institute in Israel who was not involved in the work. “This knowledge could also be instrumental to advancing the goals of regenerative medicine, such as developing tissues to address the critical shortage of organs for transplant.” “These advances have accelerated our ability to study developmental and regenerative processes,” he continues. “We plan to take a closer look at the molecular pathways we identified as involved in interspecies communication and to determine which ones are critical to the success of this process,” Izpisua Belmonte writes in an email to The Scientist. In other words, how are monkey and human cells interacting with one another during the embryo’s development? Next, the researchers analyzed a readout of which genes were active during chimera development and observed a different suite of genes than they did in monkey embryos that weren’t injected with human cells. The team did not see much human-cell presence in the layer that would become the extraembryonic tissues, such as the placenta. At 15 days old, the 38 surviving chimeras had the highest contribution of human cells (about 7 percent) in the outermost layer of embryonic cells, and at 19 days old, the three surviving chimeras had the greatest proportion of human cells (about 5 percent) in the innermost layer. Where those cells were found within the embryos shifted over time. The next day, they found human cells in all of the embryos. The researchers injected each of 132 six-day-old monkey embryos with 25 human EPS cells. They used a strategy described in two studies in 2019 by Tan’s group and another team that allows researchers to grow monkey embryos in culture for up to 20 days. In the new study, Izpisua Belmonte’s team collaborated with Tao Tan of the Kunming University of Science and Technology in China and colleagues to tackle the challenge of evolutionary distance. In the past, researchers have had limited chimeric success, at least in part due to the evolutionary distance between humans and mouse or pig hosts, she adds. but chimeric assays are not easy,” says Berna Sozen, a stem cell biologist at Yale University who was not involved in the study. “A precise confirmation of these cells’ developmental potency can only be achieved in vivo. The team grew the chimeras for up to 20 days in culture and found that up to 7 percent of the embryos’ cells can trace their lineage to the human EPS cells.ĮPS cells-generated by treating pluripotent stem cells with factors that help them both maintain pluripotency and contribute to embryonic and extraembryonic tissues-were developed by Juan Carlos Izpisua Belmonte, a stem cell biologist at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, and colleagues in 2017. The scientists made the chimeras by injecting human extended pluripotent stem (EPS) cells-also known as expanded potential stem cells-into early embryos of cynomolgus monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis). In a study published today (April 15) in Cell, researchers describe their progress in producing a human-monkey chimeric embryo in an effort to determine whether having a more closely related host would allow the human cells to have a greater presence, thus paving the way for a better understanding of what cell types they can become and, possibly in the far future, a potential way to cope with the shortage of human organs available for transplant. In work published in 2017, for instance, human cells contributed up to 1 percent of embryonic cells in a human-mouse chimera. By tracking the outcomes of the human cells, they can discern how capable these cells are of differentiating into various cell types and contributing to the embryo. Researchers investigating how this complexity arises have made human-animal chimeric embryos by introducing human pluripotent stem cells into the embryos of other animals, such as mice and pigs. There are hundreds of different cell types that make up the human body, each derived from a single origin: the fertilized egg. WEIZHI JI, KUNMING UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY The trophectoderm layer, which contains placental precursors, is labeled in green and gray. 
ABOVE: In this image of a nine-day-old human-monkey chimera, human EPS cells are labeled in red.
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